ABSTRACT Bases are chemical species that donate electrons, accept protons, or release hydroxyls (OH–) in aqueous solution. In Soil Science, “base saturation”, “exchangeable bases” or “basic cations” has been widely used to distinguish Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ from H+ and Al3+ cations. This terminology is confusing since none of these cations are truly a base in chemistry sense. However, in the absence of the proposition of a correct term, the term “base saturation” remains in use nowadays, causing confusion among students, professionals, and even among professors and researchers in Soil Science, as it leads to the erroneous interpretation that the soil acidity can be corrected by adding these cations to the soil. Here, we present the historical background of this nomenclature and a theoretical foundation that justifies the abolition of the use of these terms in Soil Science. We consider that the most correct is to call it “Ca-Mg-K-Na saturation”, which, despite being long, would refer directly and without any misinterpretation of the terminology. In Soil Fertility, the “base saturation” is often calculated only as a function of the sum of Ca, Mg, and K, since the Na content is negligible in most tropical and subtropical soils. Thus, one could use the term “Ca-Mg-K saturation”. Likewise, it is also suggested to abolish the use of the term “sum of bases” and use the term “sum of Ca-Mg-K” or “sum of Ca-Mg-K-Na” instead when necessary.

ABSTRACT: No-tillage (NT) has been one of the main advances related to soil management in Brazilian agriculture in the last 30 years. However, its full adoption in lowland areas that are traditionally cultivated with flooded rice is still incipient (<5 %). The main reasons are associated with the soil hydromorphic condition and the management of highly recalcitrant residual crop biomass, demanding soil disturbance even occasionally. This review presents a historical survey about the soil management systems utilized in lowland areas in southern Brazil, emphasizing the experiences of NT adoption in areas with flooded rice. Results from studies focused on the main changes in chemical, physical, and microbiological soil properties due to NT adoption were addressed, as well as the NT effects on greenhouse gas emissions and crop yields. Finally, the main challenges and prospects for NT were discussed considering new emerging scenarios for flooded rice production in lowlands, especially soybean rotation and integrated agricultural production systems. No-tillage can increase the soil organic carbon, the cation exchangeable capacity and tends to promote the accumulation of nutrients as nitrogen in surface layers. Improvements in soil aggregation, porosity and water availability are usually observed in NT, but only if medium or long-term trials are considered. NT favors microbial activity in the shallower soil layer by promoting microbial biomass carbon (+45 %), microbial biomass nitrogen (+54 %) and basal respiration (+54 %) compared to conventional tillage (CT), while the activity of extracellular enzymes also may be stimulated. Crop yield tends to be similar among the soil managements systems over time. Seasonal CH4 emissions might be reduced by 21 % with NT adoption without increasing N2O. Plant breeding and geotechnology advances associated with soybean market valuation intensified the introduction of this crop in paddy fields. The main challenge for the full adoption of NT is the need for soil tillage after rice harvesting to correct soil surface irregularities or manage rice straw. In the future, advances in plant breeding and drainage techniques probably will favor the expansion of NT in southern Brazil lowlands. The traditional system of flooded rice cultivation, based on CT and monoculture associated with beef cattle under extensive grazing, is no longer viable and will not be further established.

ABSTRACT: Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) has the potential to predict soil organic carbon (SOC). However, it is still little used as a matter of routine in soil laboratories in Brazil. The objective of this study was to make evaluations as to whether SOC predicted by spectral techniques can replace measurement by routine chemical methods with no loss in quality and be applied in the recommendation of nitrogen fertilizer as well as identifying the best prediction strategies to use. A data set containing 2,471 samples from six soil spectral libraries (SSL) was used to develop spectroscopic models for SOC content prediction, including consideration of sample stratification and preprocessing techniques. The SOC was quantified through the analytical-chemical methods of wet combustion with determination by titration, designated as the reference method (REM), and colorimeter, designated as the routine method (ROM in an independent data set). SOC contents predicted by the spectral analysis method (SAM) were compared to the REM and ROM results, converted to soil organic matter (SOM) and used for N recommendations. The best estimate for SOM content using the SAM was achieved through stratification of the SSL and application of the standard normal variate (SNV) preprocessing. The SOC predicted by spectral techniques proved capable of replacing the SOC measured by routine chemical methods with no loss of quality and supported by an appropriate nitrogen fertilizer recommendation, provided the models met the conditions and possessed the characteristics of the samples to be analyzed.

RESUMO: Dentre os constituintes do solo, especial atenção é voltada aos teores de argila e de matéria orgânica do solo (MOS), pois, entre outros aspectos, são determinantes para retenção de nutrientes e a formação de agregados no solo, os quais afetam diretamente o potencial produtivo das culturas. Os métodos mais comumente utilizados para quantificação destes constituintes apresentam algumas desvantagens, como o uso de reagentes químicos e a geração de resíduos. Uma alternativa a estes métodos é o uso da espectroscopia no infravermelho próximo (near infrared spectroscopy - NIRS). O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar modelos de quantificação dos teores de argila e de MOS em amostras de solo utilizando dados espectrais por meio da técnica NIRS. Foram utilizadas 400 amostras de solos com amplitude nos teores de MOS e argila para geração de uma curva de calibração. A argila foi determinada pelo método do densímetro e a MOS por meio da solução sulfocrômica. Para calibração, utilizou-se os espectros originais (absorbância) e com pré-tratamento espectral (Savitzky-Golay derivative) das 400 amostras nos seguintes modelos: multiple linear regression (MLR), partial last squares regression (PLSR), support vector machine (SVM) e Gaussian process regression (GPR). A validação da curva foi realizada com o modelo que apresentou melhor desempenho na calibração (SVM) de duas maneiras: com 40 amostras aleatórias oriundas daquelas utilizadas na calibração e com outras 200 novas amostras desconhecidas. O teor de argila das amostras de solo afeta a capacidade preditiva da curva de calibração da estimativa do teor de MOS pelo NIRS. A validação das curvas apresentou pior desempenho (menor R² e maior RMSE) quando feita a partir de amostras desconhecidas, cujo modelo tende a superestimar os teores mais baixos e subestimar os teores mais elevados de argila e MOS com a curva gerada. Apesar do potencial de predição destes atributos via NIRS, outros estudos de calibração ainda são necessários para que esta técnica possa ser utilizada em laboratórios de análises de solos.

ABSTRACT: Among the soil constituents, special attention is given to soil organic matter (SOM) and clay contents, since, among other aspects, they are key factors to nutrient retention and soil aggregates formation, which directly affect the crop production potential. The methods commonly used for the quantification of these constituents have some disadvantages, such as the use of chemical reactants and waste generation. An alternative to these methods is the near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technique. The aim of this research is to evaluate models for SOM and clay quantification in soil samples using spectral data by NIRS. A set (n = 400) of soil samples previously analyzed by traditional methods were used to generate a NIRS calibration curve. The clay content was determined by the hydrometer method while SOM content was determined by sulfochromic solution. For calibration, we used the original spectra (absorbance) and spectral pretreatment (Savitzky-Golay smoothing derivative) in the following models: multiple linear regression (MLR), partial last squares regression (PLSR), support vector machine (SVM) and Gaussian process regression (GPR). The curve validation was performed with the SVM model (best performance in the calibration based on R² and RMSE) in two ways: with 40 random samples from the calibration set and another set with 200 new unknown samples. The soil clay content affects the predictive ability of the calibration curve to estimate SOM content by NIRS. Validation curves showed poorer performance (lower R² and higher RMSE) when generated from unknown samples, where the model tends to overestimate the lower levels and to underestimate the higher levels of clay and SOM. Despite the potential of NIRS technique to predict these attributes, further calibration studies are still needed to use this technique in soil analysis laboratories.

ABSTRACT Fruit and vegetable waste can be used for the production of organic compost, which when mineralized can increase the availability of nitrogen. The objectives of this study were: (a) to produce compost from different ratios of fruit and vegetable waste, rice husk and poultry manure that meets the legislation on organic fertilizers and (b) to assess the mineralization of N in substrates prepared with different ratios of compost. In experiment 1, the following treatments were prepared using (fruit and vegetable residue: rice husk: poultry waste) (v:v): Treatment 1 (2:1:0), T2 (1:1:1), T3 (1.5:1:0) and T4 (1.2:1:0). All the treatments were subjected to composting for 95 days, were subjected to analysis of nutrients, organic carbon, C/N, CEC/C, pH and moisture content. The composts were compared in regards to the parameters required by legislation. In experiment 2, the treatments consisted of eight blends of agricultural peat, carbonized rice husk and organic compost pre-selected from experiment 1. The NO3 --N and NH+ 4-N contents were analyzed in the substrate at time zero and at 7, 14, 28, 56, 112 days after incubation. Compost (C2) met the parameters required by legislation and the use of 40% in the substrate composition promoted the mineralization of N.

ABSTRACT Methane (CH4) is the second major greenhouse gas after CO2, exerting a significant influence on the climate and the chemistry of the atmosphere. In lowland soil, acetate and H2/CO2 are the most important precursors of CH4 and formed from organic matter fermentation in an anaerobic environment, giving rise to short-chain organic acids (ethanoic, propanoic, and butanoic), depending on the type of crop residue and the soil management system. Ethanoic acid can be directly converted to CH4 by methanogenic microorganisms, but propanoic and butanoic acids must be converted to acetate before being converted to CH4. This study aimed to quantify, in isolation, the dynamics and CH4 emission potential of the three short-chain organic acids found in flooded lowland soils with rice crops. The study was carried out in a controlled environment using four standard carbon doses (0, 90, 180, and 270 mg kg−1) of ethanoic, propanoic, and butanoic acids. The dynamics and the potential emission of CH4 from soil were investigated when the acids were applied to flooded soil previously incubated for 20 days. The CH4 emission dynamics were altered with the application of the three short-chain organic acids to the soil, even using an equal amount of carbon. The faster and more intense emission was achieved with the ethanoic acid application in relation to the other two acids application, while butanoic acid presents slower, delayed, and prolonged dynamics of CH4 emission. Propanoic acid resulted in the lowest CH4 emission due to its own stoichiometry and the temperature condition in which the experiment was conducted, which were unfavorable to the hydrogenotrophic bacteria. The addition of short-chain organic acids promoted a priming effect in the soil with conversion values of C to CH4 above the calculated theoretical values.

RESUMO: O Rio Grande do Sul possui cerca de 20% da área total de solos de terras baixas, propícias para o cultivo do arroz (Oryza sativa) irrigado por inundação. Buscando mitigar danos ocasionados com o monocultivo de arroz, novas culturas, como o sorgo (Sorghum bicolor) e a soja (Glycine max), têm sido cultivadas nestas áreas. Com diferentes qualidades de resíduos culturais, espera-se uma alteração na dinâmica da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS) e, consequentemente, do nitrogênio (N). O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a influência de resíduos culturais de arroz, soja e sorgo na quantidade de N em frações físicas da MOS de dois solos de terras baixas, utilizando a técnica de marcação isotópica de 15N das culturas e uma incubação por um ciclo de 180 dias em condição aeróbica e mais 180 dias em condição anaeróbica. Aos 30, 180 e 360 dias de incubação foi quantificado o N remanescente dos resíduos vegetais e destino do N proveniente dos resíduos nos dois solos em frações físicas da MOS >250 μm, 250-53 μm e <53 μm. O solo com maior quantidade de argila+silte recebeu maior quantidade de 15N dos resíduos, enquanto que o alagamento do solo após 180 dias de incubação ocasionou uma perda do N adicionado ao solo pelos resíduos de soja e sorgo. De maneira geral, foram encontradas maiores quantidades de 15N na fração <53 μm, associado aos argilominerais. As perdas de N devem ser consideradas na adubação nitrogenada para as culturas sequentes nos sistemas de rotação de culturas com arroz irrigado.

ABSTRACT: The state of Rio Grande do Sul has about 20% of the total area as lowland soils, suitable for flooded rice (Oryza sativa). In order to mitigate damage caused by rice monoculture, new crops such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and soybean (Glycine max) have been cultivated in these areas. With different qualities of crop residues, it is expected a change in soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics and consequently, nitrogen (N) availability. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of rice, soybean and sorghum crop residues on the N present in physical fractions of SOM of two lowland soils, using labeled 15N technique, under incubation for 180 days in aerobic condition and more 180 days in anaerobic condition. At 30, 180 and 360 days of incubation the remaining N of the plant residues and N destination from the residues in both soils were quantified in the physical fractions of SOM >250 μm, 250-53 μm and <53 μm. The soil with higher amount of clay+silt received a larger quantity of 15N from residues, while flooding of the soil after 180 days caused a loss of N added to the soil by the soybean and sorghum residues. In general, larger amounts of 15N were reported in the fraction <53 μm, associated with clay minerals, throughout the incubation period. These N losses should be considered in N fertilization for the following crops in rotation with flooded rice.

RESUMO Dejetos animais representam importantes fontes de nutrientes para as plantas; entretanto, necessitam de estabilização para evitar contaminação ambiental. Juntamente com a casca de arroz, podem ser usados em compostagens e vermicompostagens e reinseridos no sistema produtivo. Neste estudo, foram elaborados compostos e vermicompostos com casca de arroz e dejetos de aves, bovinos e suínos, que, após estabilização biológica, foram avaliados quanto à composição química e fracionamento de fibras, relacionando-se com sua adequação ao uso agrícola e seu potencial fertilizante. A redução do teor de C e da relação C/N e o aumento da relação CTC/C dos compostos e vermicompostos indicaram que os processamentos favoreceram a degradação dos resíduos orgânicos e sua estabilização. Os dejetos afetam a composição, sendo que maiores teores de P, Ca e Mg foram obtidos nos materiais com dejetos de aves (1%, 4,9% e 1,6%, respectivamente). Os compostos e vermicompostos apresentaram composições similares, exceto para CE (redução de 1,6 para 0,5 dS.m-1 em vermicompostagem, na média dos três dejetos) e nos teores de K (redução de 1,8 para 0,6%, em vermicompostagem com dejeto de aves), provavelmente pela lixiviação durante o processo. Houve maior fração solúvel (61,5%) e menores teores de celulose (9,3%) e lignina (7,2%) no composto e vermicomposto com dejeto bovino, o que poderá favorecer a liberação de N para as plantas na decomposição desse material. Os dejetos de aves, bovinos e suínos resultaram em compostos maturados e vermicompostados com características químicas diferentes, sendo que os maiores teores de P, Ca e Mg foram observados nos materiais produzidos com dejetos de aves. Conclui-se que os compostos e vermicompostos produzidos poderiam ser utilizados em substituição aos fertilizantes minerais e as quantidades a serem aplicadas devem ser ajustadas em função de sua composição específica.

ABSTRACT Animal manure represents an important source of plant nutrients; however, it needs to be stabilized to avoid environmental contamination. These wastes, together with rice hulls, can be used in composting and vermicomposting and reinserted into the production system. In this study, compounds and vermicomposts were elaborated with rice hulls and poultry, bovine, and swine manure, which, after biological stabilization, were evaluated for chemical composition and fiber fractionation, associated to their suitability for agricultural use and potential fertilizer. The reduction in C content and C/N ratio with increase in the CTC/C ratio of the compounds and vermicomposts indicated that the processes boost the degradation of the organic residues and their stabilization. The manures affected the composition, with higher levels of P, Ca, and Mg in poultry waste materials (1, 4.9, and 1.6%, respectively). The compounds and vermicomposts presented similar composition, except for EC (reduction of 1.6 to 0.5 dS.m-1 in vermicompost in the average of the three wastes) and in K contents (reduction 1.8 to 0.6% in vermicompost with poultry waste), probably due to leaching during the process. There was a higher soluble fraction (61.5%) and lower cellulose (9.3%) and lignin (7.2%) contents in the compound and vermicompost with bovine manure, which could benefit the release of N to plants in the decomposition of this material. Compounds and vermicomposts could be used in sustainable production systems as a substitute for mineral fertilizers, and the amounts to be applied should be adjusted according to their specific composition.

RESUMO: O carbono rizosférico resultado da exsudação radicular é um dos substratos utilizados pela microbiota do solo, refletindo-se nas emissões de metano (CH4) em ambientes anóxicos, como no cultivo de arroz irrigado. Com o aumento da capacidade fotossintética da planta no período reprodutivo, ocorre acúmulo maior de biomassa, que por sua vez, impulsiona aumento na taxa de exsudação radicular. Entretanto, variações genotípicas nos aspectos fisiológicos das plantas de arroz podem se relacionar com a quantidade de exsudatos radiculares. Foram avaliadas dez cultivares de arroz irrigado quanto a taxa de exsudação de carbono orgânico total (TEXCOT), matéria seca da parte aérea (MSPA) e variáveis fisiológicas relacionadas com a fotossíntese no período de florescimento pleno. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos na casa de vegetação do Departamento de Solos da UFSM em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado. As cultivares apresentaram diferenças significativas na TEXCOT, na MSPA e em todas as variáveis fisiológicas, bem como, correlações positivas e significantes entre TEXCOT e as variáveis fisiológicas, sendo que as cultivares de ciclo precoce se mostraram mais ineficientes nas variáveis fisiológicas refletindo em valores reduzidos de TEXCOT e MSPA, enquanto que as cultivares de ciclo médio se mostraram mais eficientes com reflexos em maiores TEXCOT e MSPA.

ABSTRACT: Rhizospheric carbon resulting from root exudation is one of the substrates used by the soil microbiota, and reflects methane (CH4) emissions in anoxic environments such as irrigated rice cultivation. With the increase of the photosynthetic capacity of the plant in the reproductive period, there is greater accumulation of biomass which, in turn, increases the rate of root exudation. However, genotypic variations in the physiological aspects of rice plants may be related to the amount of root exudates. Ten cultivars of irrigated rice were evaluated for the exudation rate of total organic carbon (EXRToc), shoot dry matter (SDM), and physiological variables related to photosynthesis during the full flowering (blooming) period. Two experiments were conducted in the greenhouse of the Department of Soils of the UFSM (University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil) in a completely randomized experimental design. The cultivars presented significant differences in EXRToc, SDM, and all physiological variables as well as positive and significant correlations between EXRToc and physiological variables. Early cultivars were more inefficient in the physiological variables reflecting reduced values of EXRToc and SDM whereas medium-cycle cultivars were more efficient with larger EXRToc and SDM reflections.

RESUMO: A avaliação da conversão da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS) entre pastagens e cultivos arbóreos, tornou-se possível graças a diferença entre os ciclos fotossintéticos do eucalipto (C3) e da maioria das gramíneas (C4). Com o autoanalisador acoplado ao IRMS (isotope ratio mass spectrometer) e a avaliação da abundância isotópica de 13C, o presente estudo estimou a conversão da MOS em perfis do solo sob plantio de eucaliptos de diferentes idades (2, 10 e 21 anos), em área de regeneração natural e em campo de pastagem natural. O manejo inicial de todas as áreas amostradas era de pastagem natural. Foram avaliadas as seguintes camadas do perfil: 0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-70 e 70-90cm. Assim como estimada a contribuição proveniente da biomassa de eucaliptos ao longo dos anos de cultivo no processo de conversão da MOS. Após 10 anos de plantio, o processo de conversão da matéria orgânica nos cultivos arbóreos atingiu as camadas até 20cm. Após 21 anos de plantio e na área de regeneração natural, todo o perfil já sofreu alteração pelo plantio de eucaliptos e espécies arbóreas nativas.

ABSTRACT: It has become possible to evaluate the conversion of soil organic matter (SOM) in pastures and arboreal crops due to the difference between the photosynthetic cycles of Eucalyptus (C3) and most grasses (C4). The auto analyzer method coupled to the IRMS (Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer) in the present study evaluated the 13C content in soil profiles of Eucalyptus plantations of different ages (2, 10 and 21 years), in natural regeneration areas and natural grazing fields, and estimated the SOM conversion of each crop type of. The initial management of all sampled areas was natural pasture. The following profile layers were evaluated: 0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-70 and 70-90cm, and the contribution of Eucalyptus biomass over the years of farming was estimated in the SOM conversion process. After 2 years of planting Eucalyptus, the beginning of pasture carbon conversion process occurred in the surface layer (0-5cm). Ten years after planting, the process of converting organic matter by arboreal crops reached the layers up to 20cm. After 21 years of planting and in natural regeneration areas, the entire profile has already been changed by planting Eucalyptus and native tree species.

Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a capacidade do método de destilação a vapor direta (DVD) em extrair a fração de nitrogênio do solo hidrolisável em meio alcalino, e em predizer a disponibilidade de N em solos aptos ao cultivo de arroz irrigado por inundação. Vinte e cinco amostras foram coletadas da camada de 0-20 cm do solo, com diferenças de textura e teor de matéria orgânica. A mineralização de N por incubação anaeróbica foi realizada em laboratório, e os teores foliares e o acúmulo de N pelas plantas de arroz irrigado foram obtidos em casa de vegetação, pela simulação de condições de alagamento em vasos. Estas variáveis correlacionaram-se ao N extraído pelo método DVD. Os teores de N do solo obtidos com o método, bem como o N disponibilizado após 28 dias de incubação anaeróbica e o N acumulado pelas plantas após 45 dias de cultivo, apresentaram valores elevados. A avaliação de uma fração mais lábil do N, pelo método DVD, melhora a estimativa da disponibilidade de N, em comparação a métodos que avaliam apenas o teor de matéria orgânica, indício de que o método DVD tem potencial para avaliar a disponibilidade de N em solos sob cultivo de arroz irrigado por inundação.

Abstract: The objective of this work was to evaluate the ability of the direct steam distillation (DSD) method to extract alkaline hydrolyzable nitrogen fraction in the soil and to predict N availability in rice paddies. Twenty-five soil samples were collected at the 0-20-cm soil depth, with contrasting texture and contents of soil organic matter. The mineralization of N by anaerobic incubation was determined in a laboratory, and leaf-N content and N accumulation by rice plants were obtained in a greenhouse by simulating flooding conditions in pots. These variables correlated with N extracted by the DSD method. Soil-N contents obtained with the method, as well as available N after 28-day anaerobic incubation and N accumulated by rice plants after 45 days, showed high values. The evaluation of a more labile N fraction by the DSD method improves the estimation of N availability, in comparison to methods that only assess soil organic matter contents, which indicates that the DSD method has potential for evaluating N availability in rice paddies.

RESUMO O método usualmente empregado para avaliação da disponibilidade de potássio (K) no solo (Mehlich-1) não estima as formas não trocáveis do elemento. No entanto, essas formas podem contribuir de maneira significativa no suprimento às plantas de arroz irrigado por alagamento. Objetivou-se avaliar formas de K em solos de várzea por diferentes métodos e associá-las às quantidades de K absorvidas por plantas de arroz irrigado por alagamento. O experimento foi conduzido em casade-vegetação, com amostras de 14 solos de várzea cultivados com arroz (cultivar IRGA 417) e irrigados por alagamento. Nas amostras de solo, o K foi extraído com cloreto de cálcio, Mehlich-1, tetrafenil borato de sódio (NaTFB) e ácido fluorídrico, antes e após o cultivo. Na parte aérea das plantas, foi determinada a quantidade de K absorvido. Houve ampla variação na quantidade de K total para os solos de várzea. A variação na quantidade de K extraído pelo método Mehlich-1 não explica a quantidade de K absorvida pelas plantas de arroz irrigado para todos os solos. O método NaTFB foi mais sensível em estimar o K disponível em solos de várzea cultivados com arroz irrigado por alagamento.

ABSTRACT Non-exchangeable potassium (K) forms are not estimated by usual methods of soil K availability, like Mehlich-1, but they can contribute to K nutrition of flooded rice. This study aimed at evaluating K forms in lowland soils by different chemical methods and associate them to K absorption by flooded rice. Fourteen lowland soils cultivated with flooded rice (IRGA 417 cultivar) were sampled and used in a greenhouse experiment. The K forms in the soil samples were extracted before and after rice cultivation by using calcium chlorite, Mehlich-1, sodium tetra phenyl borate (NaTFB) and fluorite acid. The K uptake was measured in rice shoots. There was a wide variation in K forms among the lowland soils. The variation in the amount of K extracted by using the Mehlich-1 method does not explain the K absorption by irrigated rice plants in every soil. The NaTFB method was more sensitive to evaluate K availability in lowland soils cultivated with flooded rice plants.

O clorofilômetro pode auxiliar no manejo da adubação nitrogenada em cobertura, não havendo, porém, um valor crítico de leitura que se correlacione com a produtividade de grãos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi monitorar o teor de nitrogênio (N), nas plantas de arroz irrigado dos cultivares IRGA 422CL e IRGA 424, com o uso do clorofilômetro, e associar as leituras com a produção de matérias verde e seca das plantas e com a produtividade de grãos. Foram desenvolvidos dois experimentos, nas safras 2007/08 e 2008/09, com doses N para a 1ª e 2ª adubação de cobertura, sendo, posteriormente, realizadas as leituras SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) e determinados a produção de matérias verde e seca, os teores de N no tecido das plantas e de N acumulado e a produtividade de grãos. Houve efeito da 1ª e 2ª aplicação de N nas leituras do clorofilômetro ao longo do ciclo, porém, as leituras SPAD tornaram-se semelhantes para todos os tratamentos com o passar do tempo. A produção de matérias verde e seca e de N acumulado responderam linearmente às doses de N. Não houve efeito de interação para as doses de N e produtividade de grãos, porém, a resposta de produtividade de grãos, em função das doses de N, obedeceu a uma relação quadrática, em ambos os experimentos. A leitura SPAD avalia o estado nutricional das plantas de arroz irrigado, mas não produz uma informação precisa sobre a necessidade de aplicação de N com reflexos na produtividade. Portanto, associá-la a outros parâmetros, como à produção de matérias verde e seca da planta pode auxiliar na interpretação e no ajuste da dose de N a ser aplicada em cobertura

Chlorophyll meter can help in the management of topdressing nitrogen fertilization, however, there isn't a critical reading value with a satisfactory relationship with grain yield. The objective of this study was to monitor the nitrogen (N) level in flooded rice plants, cultivars IRGA 422CL and IRGA 424, using the chlorophyll meter and associating the readings with green/dry matter production and grain yield. Two experiments were carried out in the crop years 2007/08 and 2008/09 with N rates for the 1st and 2nd topdressing fertilizations, followed by SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development) readings and determination of green/dry mater, N content in plant tissue, accumulated N and grain yield. It was found effect of the 1st and 2nd N applications on chlorophyll meter readings along the cycle, however, the SPAD readings became similar with time for all treatments. Green/dry matter production and accumulated N responded linearly to the N rates. There was no effect of interaction for N rates and grain yield, but the response of grain yield as a function of N rates was described by a quadratic equation in both experiments. SPAD readings evaluated the nutritional status of flooded rice plants but did not show accurate information about N needs with reflexes in the yield. Therefore, chlorophyll meter readings could be associated to other parameters, such as green/dry mater to help interpretation and adjustment of N topdressing fertilization.

Entre os gases de efeito estufa, o óxido nitroso (N2O) é considerado importante por apresentar poder de aquecimento 296 vezes maior que o dióxido de carbono (CO2) e tem sua dinâmica muito dependente da disponibilidade de C e de N mineral no solo. Portanto, conhecer os fatores que interferem na sua emissão é fundamental para desenvolver estratégias de mitigação. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a dinâmica da emissão de N2O na presença de diferentes quantidades de palha de arroz e de teores de nitrato na solução do solo. Para tal, nove tratamentos com a combinação de doses de nitrato de sódio (equivalente a 0, 50 e 100 g kg-1 de N-NO−3) e as quantidades de palha de arroz (equivalente a 0, 5 e 10 Mg ha-1) foram aplicados em vasos, onde foram submetidos a condições anaeróbicas por alagamento. A emissão de N2O foi influenciada positivamente pela maior dose de NO−3 e pela menor quantidade de palha adicionada no solo. No 1º dia após alagamento (DAA), a emissão de N2O foi alterada de forma significativa entre os tratamentos, com e sem adição de NO−3, com pouca interferência da presença da palha de arroz nesse momento. O maior pico de emissão foi observado no 4º DAA nos tratamentos com maior adição de NO−3; naquele momento, a adição da palha de arroz provocou efeito negativo sobre a emissão de N2O, provavelmente por causa da imobilização do NO−3. Também houve alterações nas demais características eletroquímicas do solo, em que as maiores adições de palha elevaram os teores de Fe, Mn e C dissolvido. Esses resultados indicaram que a redução da concentração de NO−3 no solo e o aumento da quantidade de palha incorporada diminuem a emissão de N2O.

Among the greenhouse gases, nitrous oxide (N2O) is considered important, in view of a global warming potential 296 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO2) and its dynamics strongly depend on the availability of C and mineral N in the soil. The understanding of the factors that define emissions is essential to develop mitigation strategies. This study evaluated the dynamics of N2O emissions after the application of different rice straw amounts and nitrate levels in soil solution. Pots containing soil treated with sodium nitrate rates (0, 50 and 100 g kg-1 of NO−3-N) and rice straw levels (0, 5 and 10 Mg ha-1), i.e., nine treatments, were subjected to anaerobic conditions. The results showed that N2O emissions were increased by the addition of greater NO−3 amounts and reduced by large straw quantities applied to the soil. On the 1st day after flooding (DAF), significantly different N2O emissions were observed between the treatments with and without NO−3 addition, when straw had no significant influence on N2O levels. Emissions peaked on the 4th DAF in the treatments with highest NO−3-N addition. At this moment, straw application negatively affected N2O emissions, probably due to NO−3 immobilization. There were also alterations in other soil electrochemical characteristics, e.g., higher straw levels raised the Fe, Mn and dissolved C contents. These results indicate that a lowering of NO−3 concentration in the soil and the increase of straw incorporation can decrease N2O emissions.

A extração de fósforo do solo pode ser comprometida pelas condições em que a análise é realizada e isso pode explicar a variabilidade nos resultados encontrados. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a influência de desvios na velocidade de agitação, no tempo de contato e na temperatura sobre a extração do P pelos extratores Mehlich-1 (M-1) e Mehlich-3 (M-3) em amostras de solo. O estudo foi conduzido por meio de três experimentos executados com 11 amostras de solo provenientes da camada arável de Latossolo, Neossolo, Argissolo, Cambissolo, Planossolo, que são representativas das regiões geomorfológicas do Planalto e da Depressão Central do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Para todos os experimentos, adotou-se o delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado em esquema fatorial 2 × 5 × 11, sendo dois extratores, cinco velocidades, temperaturas ou tempos de contato solo/solução e 11 tipos de solo, com quatro repetições. No primeiro experimento, a mistura solo:solução foi agitada em 80, 100, 120, 140 e 160 oscilações por min (opm). No segundo, após a agitação por 5 min, a mistura solo:solução foi deixada em repouso por períodos de tempo de oito, 12, 16, 20 e 24 h para retirada dos extratos. No terceiro, a temperatura de execução de todo o protocolo de análises foi mantida constante em 15, 20, 25, 30 e 35 °C. O aumento na velocidade de agitação de 120 até 160 opm aumentou a quantidade de P extraído pelos extratores. O aumento no tempo de contato antes da extração da alíquota elevou as quantidades de P extraído pelo M-1 e diminuiu para o M-3. Variações na temperatura não influenciaram significativamente o extrator M-1, mas o M-3 foi mais sensível a variações. Uma padronização na velocidade de agitação, no tempo de repouso e uma climatização dos laboratórios tornam-se necessárias para diminuir a interferência causada sobre as quantidades de P extraído pelos métodos M-1 e M-3 em amostras de solo.

To produce reliable analytical data in a laboratory, all the stages of the analysis protocol must be properly understood and controlled. Extraction of soil P may thus be compromised by the conditions of analysis, and this may explain variability in results. Therefore, the objective of this study was to verify the effect of deviations in agitation speed, time of soil/ solution contact, and environmental temperature on extraction of soil P by Mehlich-1 (M-1) and Mehlich-3 (M-3). The study was conducted through three experiments performed simultaneously with 11 soil samples from the tilled layer of the following soils: Latossolo, Neossolo, Argissolo, Cambissolo, and Planossolo (Oxisol, Entisol, Ultisol, Inceptisol, and Alfisol) which are representative of the geomorphological regions of the Plateau and the Central Depression of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. For all experiments, a completely randomized experimental design was adopted in a 2 × 5 × 11 factorial arrangement, consisting of two extractors, five speeds, temperatures, or times of soil/solution contact, and 11 soil types, with four replications. In the first experiment, the soil/solution mixture was shaken at 80, 100, 120, 140, and 160 oscillations per minute (opm). In the second, after shaking for 5 min., the soil/solution mixture was left at rest for periods of eight, 12, 16, 20 and 24 h before extract removal. In the third, the temperature for performing the entire analysis protocol was kept constant at 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C. The increase in soil/solution contact time increased the amounts of P extracted by M1, but the amount extracted by M3 decreased. Variations in temperature did not significantly affect the M1 extractor; however, M3 was more sensitive to variations. Agitation speed greater than 120 opm increases the amounts of P extracted by the M1 and M3 extractors. There was no consistence between resting periods and the amounts of P extracted by the M1 and M3 extractors. Standardizing the agitation speed and the resting periods would minimize differences in the amount of P extracted by M1 and M3 from soil samples.